DNA Testing for Black Genealogy: What It Can (and Can’t) Do

February 15, 2026

DNA is a tool, not a miracle.

DNA strand, close-up, with glowing dots against a blue-and-orange bokeh background, creating an ethereal, scientific atmosphere.

DNA testing can feel like opening a door you didn’t know existed. One day you’re minding your own family history business, and the next day your results show a “2nd–3rd cousin” with a last name you’ve never heard… and they’ve already built a whole family tree.

That’s the magic part.

But let’s be real: DNA is powerful, and it can change your research fast. Still, it comes with limits. Especially in Black genealogy, slavery, record loss, name changes, and forced family separation created gaps that DNA alone cannot fill. DNA works best when you pair it with records, history, and good research habits.¹

What DNA can do (the door-opening stuff)

1)    Connect you to living relatives.

Autosomal DNA (the kind most people take through the big testing companies) is excellent for cousin matching because it compares how much DNA you share with other testers.² The shared DNA doesn’t tell the whole story by itself, but it can lead you to family photos, stories, and surnames that never made it into the paper trail.

2)    Help you break through “brick walls.”

In Black genealogy, a brick wall often shows up around the 1870 census and earlier. The 1870 census matters because it is the first federal census after emancipation that generally lists formerly enslaved people by name.³ DNA can point you to a cluster of matches connected to the same place and community, and those clues can guide you to the right records.

3)    Give you ethnicity clues (not identity instructions).

Ethnicity estimates can be helpful for a broad context, but they’re still estimates based on reference panels and statistical models. Ancestry even explains it this way: your DNA doesn’t change, but the results can change as their science improves and their reference panel grows.⁴ So treat ethnicity like a starting clue, not a final label.

What DNA can’t do (the truth that saves you frustration)

1)    It can’t name your enslaved ancestor for you.

DNA won’t pop up and say, “Your 4th-great-grandmother was Maria, born 1832.” You still have to connect the DNA evidence to records like census schedules, probate files, deeds, church records, Freedmen’s Bureau materials, and local histories.¹

2)    It can’t reliably hand you one exact African “tribe” or hometown.

Some services market very specific group or community connections. Those results can be meaningful, but they also depend on who is represented in the reference database and how groups are defined.⁵ That’s one reason scholars urge people to think carefully about what “origins” mean and how identity is shaped by history, migration, and politics.⁶

3)    It can’t protect your feelings.

DNA testing can reveal surprises: unknown parentage, half-siblings, or family stories that don’t match the facts.¹ If you test, it helps to prepare your heart and your boundaries before you click “View Matches.”

Why Black DNA match lists can look “messy.”

Many people are shocked by how hard it is to sort out matches. Endogamy (marrying within the same community) can make matches appear closer than they really are. Also, slavery forced people into the same geographic areas for generations, which can create multiple overlapping connections. That “everybody looks familiar” feeling can be real.

Picking a testing company: where to start

If your goal is more cousin matches, database size matters.

Logos of DNA testing companies on a green gradient background: AncestryDNA, 23andMe, MyHeritage, FamilyTreeDNA, African Ancestry, GEDmatch.

• AncestryDNA reports over 25 million customers in its DNA database.⁷

• 23andMe reported about 14.4 million customers (as of March 31, 2025).⁸

• MyHeritage has reported 9.3+ million users in its DNA database.⁹

• FamilyTreeDNA reports that 2 million people have tested.

These numbers don’t tell you which company is “best,” but they do help explain why some people get more matches in one place than another.

I have tested with all of these companies and have connected with cousins on each.

What is GEDmatch (and why people use it)?

GEDmatch is not a testing company. You don’t buy a kit from them. You upload your raw DNA file from a testing company, then use GEDmatch’s tools to compare across companies.¹⁰ Their education page explains it as a place to match with the people who have uploaded there (they reference about 1.2 million uploaded kits).¹¹ Tools like the “One-to-Many” match list help you scan for matches and start grouping them.¹²

Two services I’m cautious about (and why)

Why I’m cautious about 23andMe (for genealogy right now)

I keep coming back to three concerns. First, security. The UK Information Commissioner’s Office (ICO) fined 23andMe £2.31 million ($3.15 million USD) after investigating the 2023 cyberattack and finding failures to protect UK users’ genetic data¹³. Second, corporate instability and data questions during bankruptcy. New York’s Attorney General urged customers to consider deleting their data after the bankruptcy filing, which shows how serious these concerns have become.¹⁴ Reuters also reported on the privacy fears around customer genetic data during that period.¹⁵ Third, I pay close attention to the research ecosystem around genetic data. 23andMe explains that research participation is optional and that sharing individual-level de-identified data with collaborators requires separate consent, but I still encourage people to read those settings carefully and make the choice that fits their comfort level.¹⁶ I did test with 23andMe, but have since deleted my account.

I’m also cautious about African Ancestry (for my goals)

I understand why African Ancestry appeals to people. The idea of reconnecting is powerful. But their tests trace one direct line at a time (maternal mtDNA or paternal Y-DNA), not your whole ancestry.¹⁷ That can be meaningful, but it’s still one thread in a bigger family story. Another thing that gives me pause with this testing company is how confidently they claim the results are accurate, given that science has limits. I’m not saying the testing is fake, but I am cautious about the way a DNA match can be presented as a link to a specific present-day ethnic group or “tribe.” Identities, borders, and communities have changed over centuries, and the reference databases can’t perfectly represent everyone. I don’t want to walk away treating that match like a definitive answer about who my ancestors were, when it’s really a best-fit conclusion based on the samples available. Cost matters too: their PatriClan and MatriClan tests are listed at $299 each. A person would need to take both to trace their paternal and maternal lines. I have to weigh that against investing in records and research that can identify multiple ancestors across multiple branches.¹⁸

A quick pep talk before you click “View Matches.”

DNA testing is not a miracle. It’s a tool. A strong one. But the best results come from patience, good notes, and pairing DNA with documents and historical context. And if you want help turning matches into real people (without spiraling at 3 a.m.), that’s exactly what I do. I help clients connect DNA evidence to records, communities, and history so their results become more than percentages. They become family.

Genealogist sorting DNA match clusters beside probate and deed files, demonstrating DNA testing for Black genealogy as a tool—not a miracle.

If you’re still processing a surprise match, go back and read my blog “When DNA Matches Reveal Unexpected Family Connections” for a reminder that your results can bring both answers and new questions. And if the paper trail is weighing heavily on you, “The Emotional Impact of Genealogy Research” blog is there for the moments when the truth is real, painful, and still worth naming.

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Sources

1. National Human Genome Research Institute, “Healthcare Provider Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing FAQ,” last updated June 14, 2023, https://www.genome.gov/For-Health-Professionals/Provider-Genomics-Education-Resources/Healthcare-Provider-Direct-to-Consumer-Genetic-Testing-FAQ. (Genome.gov)

2. International Society of Genetic Genealogy (ISOGG), “Autosomal DNA Statistics,” accessed February 16, 2026, https://isogg.org/wiki/Autosomal_DNA_statistics. (ISOGG)

3. FamilySearch Wiki, “African Americans in the U.S. Federal Census, 1870–1890,” last edited December 8, 2025, https://www.familysearch.org/en/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_U.S._Federal_Census%2C_1870-1890_-_International_Institute. (FamilySearch)

4. Ancestry, “Deep Dive: AncestryDNA 2025 Origins Update,” October 9, 2025, https://www.ancestry.com/c/ancestry-blog/dna/ancestrydna-2025-origins-update. (Ancestry)

5. LaKisha T. David, “Addressing the Feasibility of People of African Descent Finding Living African Relatives Using Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing,” American Journal of Biological Anthropology 181, no. 2 (2023): 163–165, https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.24705. (Wiley Online Library)

6. Sarah Abel, “Of African Descent? Blackness and the Concept of Origins in Cultural Perspective,” Genealogy 2, no. 1 (2018): 11, https://doi.org/10.3390/genealogy2010011. (MDPI)

7. Rekha Angara et al., Ancestral Regions 2025 White Paper (AncestryDNA, last updated October 9, 2025), https://www.ancestrycdn.com/support/us/2025/10/2025ancestralregionswhitepaper.pdf. (Ancestry)

8. 23andMe Holding Co., “Annual Report on Form 10-K (FY Ended March 31, 2025),” filed June 11, 2025, https://content.edgar-online.com/ExternalLink/EDGAR/0001628280-25-030786.html?dest=mehcq-20250331xexx321_htm&hash=c37b1a19f0594ef55d61c9e160959faa58d5808d32de65c93b990299d6bf432c. (EDGAR Online)

9. The DNA Geek, “The End of an Era: Uploads at MyHeritage,” May 29, 2025, https://thednageek.com/the-end-of-an-era-uploads-at-myheritage/. (The DNA Geek)

10. GEDmatch, “What Is GEDmatch?” accessed February 16, 2026, https://www.gedmatch.com/education/what-is-gedmatch/. (GEDmatch)

11. Ibid. (GEDmatch)

12. GEDmatch, “How to Use One-to-Many Matching,” accessed February 16, 2026, https://www.gedmatch.com/education/how-to-use-one-to-many-matching/. (GEDmatch)

13. Information Commissioner’s Office (UK), “23andMe Fined £2.31 Million for Failing to Protect UK Users’ Genetic Data,” June 17, 2025, https://ico.org.uk/about-the-ico/media-centre/news-and-blogs/2025/06/23andme-fined-for-failing-to-protect-uk-users-genetic-data/. (ICO)

14. Letitia James, New York State Attorney General, “Consumer Alert: Attorney General James Urges 23andMe Customers to Contact Company to Delete Data,” press release, March 25, 2025, https://ag.ny.gov/press-release/2025/attorney-general-james-urges-23andme-customers-contact-company-delete-data. (New York State Attorney General)

15. Bhanvi Satija and Siddhi Mahatole, “New York AG Urges 23andMe Users to Delete Accounts as Bankruptcy Fuels Privacy Concerns,” Reuters, March 25, 2025, https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/new-york-attorney-general-urges-23andme-users-delete-their-data-2025-03-25/. (Reuters)

16. 23andMe, “Research Participation and Consent,” accessed February 16, 2026, https://customercare.23andme.com/hc/en-us/articles/212195708-Research-Participation-and-Consent; and 23andMe, “Individual Data Sharing Consent,” accessed February 16, 2026, https://customercare.23andme.com/hc/en-us/articles/115015674488-Individual-Data-Sharing-Consent. (23andMe Customer Care)

17. African Ancestry, Inc., “FAQ,” accessed February 16, 2026, https://africanancestry.com/pages/faq. (African Ancestry)

18. African Ancestry, Inc., “PatriClan Test Kit,” accessed February 16, 2026, https://africanancestry.com/products/patriclan-test-kit. (African Ancestry)

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Alex Haley “In every conceivable manner, the family is link to our past, bridge to our future.”

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Black Genealogy Newspapers: Finding Ancestors Between Lines

Tuesday, February 10, 2026

Your ancestors didn’t just exist in records. They lived full lives—and newspapers quietly recorded them.

When people think about genealogy research, they often picture census records, birth certificates, or maybe an obituary clipped from an old scrapbook. But for Black family historians, newspapers are one of the most powerful and underused sources available. Long before many of our ancestors were fully documented in official records, newspapers were quietly recording their lives between the lines.

Newspapers tell fuller stories. And those stories matter.

Why Newspapers Matter in Black Genealogy

For much of American history, Black lives were overlooked, misrecorded, or excluded entirely from government records. Enslaved people were rarely named. Free Black people were often grouped together without detail. Newspapers, however imperfect, often captured moments that official records ignored.

You might find a short notice about a church picnic, a court case, a business opening, a school honor roll, or a community fundraiser. These everyday moments reveal something powerful: our ancestors lived full lives. They worked, worshipped, celebrated, struggled, and built communities.

Even when names are missing, context can be everything!

Looking Beyond Obituaries

Obituaries are valuable, but they are not the only place Black ancestors appear in newspapers. In fact, relying only on obituaries can cause researchers to miss rich details hiding in plain sight.

Here are some sections to explore:

• Local news columns: These often reported who visited whom, who was sick, or who moved away.

• Church and society pages: Black churches frequently appeared in both Black-owned and white-owned papers.

• Court notices and legal ads: These may list witnesses, defendants, land sales, or estate matters involving Black individuals.

• Employment ads and labor news: These can show occupations, skills, and economic conditions.

• School and education news: Lists of students, teachers, and graduates appear more often than you might expect.

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Each small mention adds a brushstroke to your ancestor’s story.

When I talk about looking beyond obituaries, I am not speaking in theory. I have seen the power of newspapers in my own family research. My paternal great-grandmother, Cora Bell Williams Woodard (1897–1957), appears in the Anniston Star at least 31 times. Thirty-one times. That number alone tells me something important. She was active. She was visible. She mattered.

The articles about her are not limited to her death. In fact, most of them have nothing to do with her obituary. They appear in church columns, community updates, organizational news, and social notes. Each mention adds another layer to who she was.

My paternal great-grandmother, Cora Bell Williams Woodard (1897 - 1957)

Cora Bell Williams Woodard was a native of Georgia. She moved to Anniston, Alabama, in

the 1930s, during a time when many Black families were searching for work, stability, and opportunity. Moving to a new city was not easy, especially for a Black woman in the Jim Crow South. Yet once she arrived, she did not simply blend into the background. She stepped forward.

Through Mount Olive Baptist Church, she helped create one of the first kindergarten classes in the community. That detail stopped me in my tracks. Kindergarten was not common in many Black communities at that time, especially in the South. Resources were limited. Schools for Black children were often underfunded. But my great-grandmother and others saw a need and did something about it. They made a way for young children to start learning earlier. She also created the first Boy Scout troop, where my dad and his cousins were the first members. That tells me she believed in education and in building something that would last.

Newspaper articles also describe her as a Sunday school teacher. That role meant more than standing in front of a class once a week. Sunday school teachers shaped values, faith, and discipline. They mentored children and supported families. In many Black communities, the church was the center of social life. It was a place of worship, yes, but also a meeting hall, a planning space, and a safe place to gather. Serving there meant leadership.

Members of the National Baptist Convention travel to Kansas City, Missouri, for their annual conference.

She was also a member of the National Baptist Convention. That organization connected Black churches across the country. Membership suggests she was part of something bigger than her local congregation. She understood that faith communities could organize, educate, and advocate on a national level.

Even more interesting was that she was a member of the NAACP. During the 1930s and 1940s, membership in the NAACP was not casual. It was an act of courage. Black citizens who joined civil rights organizations often faced threats, job loss, and violence. Her membership tells me she believed in justice. She was willing to stand for change. She also traveled to Kansas City, Missouri, and Washington, DC, to attend the larger meeting for these organizations.

When I piece together all these newspaper mentions, I see a woman who was more than a wife and mother. She was a community builder. She was a teacher. She was an organizer. She was a trailblazer in Anniston.

And yet, every time I access those newspaper pages, I feel something else too. I feel offended.

All of the articles about her community service and activism appear in a section of the Star titled “Activities of Colored People.” Seeing that heading in print reminds me of the segregation that shaped her life. Black achievements were not simply listed alongside everyone else’s. They were separated. Labeled. Boxed in.

The same newspaper that praised her work also reflected a system that treated her community as different and unequal. Even the language used in some articles can feel instant or patronizing. The page's formatting itself tells a story of division.

As a researcher, I am grateful. Without those newspapers, I might never have known about the kindergarten she helped establish or the organizations she joined. I would not see how often her name appeared in print. I would not understand how deeply rooted she was in her community.

But as her great-granddaughter, I feel the sting of history. I imagine her turning those same newspaper pages decades ago. Did she notice the section titles? Did she feel pride seeing her name in print? Did she feel frustration at the limits placed on her world? I will never know for sure.

What I do know is this: she lived fully in the space she was given. She created opportunities where little existed. She built institutions that served others. She helped shape young minds. She stood for civil rights. She left fingerprints across her community, and the newspapers proved it.

Cora Bell Williams-Woodard's newspaper obituary in the Anniston Star, 1957.

Those 31 mentions are more than clippings. They are evidence of impact.

Newspapers often reduce people to small paragraphs, but when those paragraphs are gathered together, they tell a powerful story. In my great-grandmother’s case, they reveal leadership, faith, courage, and commitment. They show a woman who loved her family and extended that love outward to her community.

I will always be offended by the labels and the segregation I see on those pages. But I will also feel pride and gratitude. Proud that her name appears again and again. Proud that she did not live quietly. Proud that she made sure the next generation would start school ready to learn. And grateful for the only opportunity to learn about this woman from whom I descend, because no one ever shared this information.

Reading those newspapers reminds me that our ancestors were never just statistics. They were organizers, teachers, believers, and fighters. Even in divided columns of ink, their strength shines through.

The Power of the Black Press

Black-owned newspapers are especially valuable. Publications like The Chicago Defender, The Pittsburgh Courier, and The Afro-American reported on Black life with care, pride, and detail. They covered achievements, injustices, migration stories, and community milestones that white newspapers often ignored or distorted.

If your ancestors lived in or passed through major cities during the Great Migration, Black newspapers can help trace their movements and motivations. Job listings, travel notices, and letters to the editor often explain why families moved and what they hoped to find.

These papers remind us that Black history was being written in real time by Black voices.

Reading Between the Lines

Not every mention will be obvious. Some articles use outdated or offensive language. Others may only reference a first name, a nickname, or a role instead of a full identity. This is where careful reading comes in.

Ask yourself:

• Who is being discussed, even if unnamed?

• What neighborhood, church, or workplace is mentioned?

• Who appears repeatedly in the same column?

  
  

Patterns can point you toward family connections, community networks, and shared experiences. Newspapers reward patience.

Where to Find Historic Newspapers

Many historic newspapers are now digitized and searchable online. Some of the most helpful resources include:

• Chronicling America (Library of Congress): Free access to historic U.S. newspapers.

• Newspapers.com and GenealogyBank: Subscription sites with powerful search tools.

• State archives and local libraries: Often host digitized or microfilmed local papers.

• University collections: Especially strong for Black press publications.

  
  

Try searching by name, address, church name, employer, or event.

Bringing the Stories Home

When you find a newspaper clipping about your ancestor—even a small one—pause and imagine the moment. A wedding announcement. A labor dispute. A church anniversary. These are proof points of existence and resilience.

For descendants of enslaved people, especially, newspapers can bridge painful gaps left by slavery and segregation. They remind us that our people were not invisible, even when the system tried to erase them.

A Call to Action

This Black History Month, challenge yourself to go beyond the basics. Look past the headline records. Dig into newspapers. Read between the lines. Because our ancestors were there. They always were.

Preserving and telling our stories is an act of claiming space in history. And our stories are waiting to be found.

Sources

"Mt. Olive Baptist Church Activities." Newspapers.com. The Anniston Star, February 1, 1948. https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-anniston-star-mt-olive-baptist-chur/191204525/.

"Services Slated For Local Woman—Cora Williams Woodard." Newspapers.com. The Anniston Star, November 10, 1957. https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-anniston-star-services-slated-for-lo/191222982/.

Library of Congress. Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers. Accessed January 2026. https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov.

Miller, Edward A. “Using African American Newspapers for Genealogical Research.” National Archives Prologue Magazine. Accessed January 2026. https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue.

Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture. “The Black Press.” Accessed January 2026. https://nmaahc.si.edu.

Newspapers.com. “African American Genealogy Research with Newspapers.” Accessed January 2026. https://www.newspapers.com.

When DNA Matches Reveal Unexpected Family Connections

February 14, 2026

DNA can quietly confirm what we suspected—or completely unravel what we believed.

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Happy Valentine’s Day. If you know anything about me, you know that I have a great LOVE and PASSION for family history. I truly do. I love the stories, the connections, the discoveries, and even the challenges. Family history is more than research to me. It is work done from my heart!

And sometimes, the work is heartbreaking and complicated.

Genealogist studying DNA matches.

DNA has changed the way I approach genealogy. For many of us, especially in Black family history research, DNA can open doors that records never could. It can reconnect branches broken by slavery, migration, and silence. But I have learned something important along the way: discovery does not always come with preparation.

DNA can reveal unexpected family connections. And when it does, it can change what we thought we knew.

When I first began working with DNA in my research, I saw it as a powerful tool. I expected ethnicity estimates, new surnames, and maybe a few distant cousins. What I did not fully expect was how personal it would feel when the results did not match the stories.

Unexpected DNA connections can show up in many ways. A close match you have never heard of. A parent, sibling, or cousin who was never mentioned. A biological line that does not align with family tradition. When that happens, it can stop you in your tracks.

When it comes to DNA matches, my most frequent saying is, “DNA doesn’t lie, people do.” And I say it because I have seen it over and over again. It can be aggravating.

Family stories sometimes shift. Details get softened. Secrets get buried. But DNA reflects biology, not memory. That does not mean people always lie on purpose. Sometimes people protect themselves. Sometimes they protect others. Sometimes they are protecting pain that has never healed.

Still, when DNA results contradict what you were told, it can feel unsettling. There is something powerful about seeing percentages and shared centimorgans quietly challenge decades of belief. Shock, frustration, grief, and confusion can rise all at once. I have felt it. I have seen clients sit silently in that moment when the screen tells a different story.

But I have also seen something else.

I have thoroughly embraced the cousins I have discovered through DNA. We share kin, we share history, and we share blood.

Percentages from various regions from my results.

Some of those connections began with cautious messages and simple introductions. Over time, they turned into shared photographs, exchanged documents, and conversations about grandparents and great-grandparents whose names we both recognized. In those moments, DNA was not disruptive. It was restorative. It reminded me that family lines that were once separated can find their way back together.

And this is where DNA connects directly to something I wrote about earlier in The Emotional Impact of Genealogy Research.

In that post, I talked about the emotional weight that historical records can carry. A bill of sale listing enslaved ancestors. A probate file dividing human beings as property. A newspaper notice that separates families with a few cold sentences. Records can hurt.

DNA can hurt, too.

Records tell us what happened. DNA tells us who we are biologically connected to. Records are ink on paper. DNA connects living people in real time.

For Black genealogists, this can feel especially heavy. Many of us discover unexpected European ancestry tied to slavery. Others match descendants of enslavers. Some uncover family lines shaped by violence and power imbalances that were never discussed openly. History does not stay in the past when it shows up in your DNA results.

When that happens, I remind myself of something I have learned through both records and DNA: genealogy is emotional labor.

We are not just researchers. We are descendants. We carry the stories we uncover.

That is why I encourage people to pause before reacting to unexpected DNA results. You do not have to message a new match immediately. You do not have to share the news at the next family gathering. You are allowed to sit with it.

I also think about ethics. Just because DNA reveals something to me does not mean everyone involved is ready to hear it. Some people test for curiosity. Some for health reasons. Some without realizing what might surface. If I reach out to someone, I ask myself: Am I prepared for any response? Am I ready for silence? For denial? For emotion?

Respect matters.

I also remind myself that DNA is only one piece of the story. It works best alongside records, oral history, and historical context. Shared DNA can connect families across generations in ways that are not always obvious at first glance. Education helps. Understanding how inheritance works can prevent misunderstandings and unnecessary conflict.

But even with knowledge, the emotions are real.

When I say, “DNA doesn’t lie; people do,” I am not attacking family members. I am acknowledging that truth can be uncomfortable. Sometimes, silence felt safer in another generation. Sometimes survival required secrets. That does not make our ancestors weak. It reminds me how much they endured.

DNA can reveal unexpected family connections. And when it does, it can change what we thought we knew. It can be frustrating.

DNA does not erase the family that raised you. It does not cancel love, loyalty, or lived experience. It simply adds another layer to the story.

In The Emotional Impact of Genealogy Research I talked about grounding yourself when documents feel overwhelming. The same advice applies here. Step away from the screen. Take a breath. Journal your thoughts. Seek support from trusted friends or fellow genealogists who understand the complexity of this work.

Our ancestors survived systems designed to erase them. Their resilience lives in us. Unexpected DNA discoveries do not diminish that strength. If anything, they reveal how layered and complicated our stories truly are.

DNA can open doors. It can reconnect branches. It can answer questions we have carried for years. But it can also shift foundations.

That does not mean we stop searching.

It means we search with care.

As I continue this journey, I hold both truths at the same time. Discovery is powerful. And so is compassion.

Genealogy is not just about finding names. It is about honoring the full truth of our stories, even when that truth surprises us.

And when it does, I remind myself: honesty may be aggravating, but it is also freeing.

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Sources

1. Bettinger, Blaine T. The Family Tree Guide to DNA Testing and Genetic Genealogy. Cincinnati: Family Tree Books, 2019. https://familytreemagazine.com.

2. International Society of Genetic Genealogy. “Understanding DNA Match Lists.” Accessed January 2026. https://isogg.org.

3. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. “African American Genealogy Resources.” Accessed January 2026. https://www.archives.gov/research/african-americans.

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